top of page

Crown and Continent: African Royalty in a Modern Age

A Thesis for the Pablo VI Institute for Moral Sciences

________________________________

 

By D. Louis Benjamin Ardé.

 

Standfirst: Across Africa today, sovereignty and culture intertwine in distinctive ways—from the crowned states of Morocco, Lesotho and Eswatini, to constitutionally recognized traditional authorities in South Africa and its neighbors, and to dynastic lineages of Ethiopia and the imperial memory of Mali. This field guide maps the laws, orders, etiquette, and ethics that shape royal engagement on the continent, analyzing the moral and social role of these enduring institutions.

 

African Thrones, Living Heritage – A Lede from the Dais

A conch shell gives a low call; bead-worked regiments answer in song. Under the steel spans of Durban’s Moses Mabhida Stadium, a modern presidency presents an ancient kingdom with a certificate of recognition. Cameras pan from leopard-skin capes to the presidential seal; the crowd chants “Bayede!” for the Zulu monarch. In the front row, King Mswati III of Eswatini – one of Africa’s three sovereign kings – looks on regally in silk. It’s a tableau of tradition and statecraft: a cultural throne reaffirmed by a republic, a modern African nation affirming an ancient lineage.

 

From Morocco’s imperial palaces to remote savannah chiefdoms, Africa’s royal institutions are navigating the 21st century with a delicate balance of sovereignty, custom, and constitutional law. This thesis explores the continent’s living monarchies – the sovereign kingdoms, storied imperial dynasties, and constitutionally recognized traditional leaders – and how they blend heritage with modern governance. We journey from the royal councils of Southern Africa to West African chieftaincy palaces, charting how kings, chiefs, and queen mothers carry forward leadership in a rapidly changing world.

 

A Crown of Two Kinds: Sovereignty vs. Cultural Monarchy

At the dawn of 2025, only three nations in Africa are still headed by sovereign monarchs. Morocco, a centuries-old Sharifian kingdom, and the smaller Kingdom of Lesotho are constitutional monarchies where kings govern alongside elected officials. Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) remains an executive monarchy under King Mswati III – the Ngwenyama or Lion – who rules by traditional law and decree. These sovereign kings hold head-of-state status, serving as the fount of honour and guardians of state religions (in Morocco, King Mohammed VI is titled “Commander of the Faithful”).

 

By contrast, dozens of other African kingdoms persist as cultural institutions within republics. These traditional monarchies – such as the Zulu kingdom in South Africa or the Ashanti Golden Stool in Ghana – enjoy no de jure state power, yet wield profound social influence. Their authority is rooted in history and community loyalty rather than sovereignty. The distinction is critical: sovereign monarchs reign (and sometimes rule) over nation-states, while cultural monarchs reign over peoples – communities that exist within nations.

 

In contrast, cultural monarchs like the Zulu, Yoruba, Buganda, or Ashanti kings reign in a strictly traditional sphere. The Zulu King, for instance, “does not bestow executive power” in South Africa’s government. Instead, he holds moral authority over 11 million Zulu people and custodian rights over communal lands and customs. This cultural clout is far from trivial: Africans consistently express high trust in their traditional leaders. In surveys across 22 countries, 64% of Africans trust traditional leaders at least somewhat – a higher confidence level than for elected presidents or parliamentarians. Majorities see chiefs as crucial in local governance and conflict resolution. They are valued as “the true representatives of their people, accessible, respected and legitimate,” often more so than distant bureaucrats.

 

Thus, even without formal sovereignty, Africa’s cultural monarchs remain pillars of community identity and governance, operating in parallel with the state. The Zulu coronation scene – a president recognizing a king – underscores how modern African states increasingly acknowledge these dual authorities. In President Ramaphosa’s words, South Africa’s democracy works best “in an integrated manner” with traditional leadership, not against it.

 

Legitimacy & Law: Constitutions, Custom, and the Crown

How do you fit a kingdom inside a republic? Across Africa, countries have developed legal frameworks to recognize traditional leadership while upholding democratic principles.

 

South Africa’s 1996 Constitution broke new ground by explicitly protecting the “institution of traditional leadership” and customary law (Chapter 12). It acknowledges kings and chiefs as part of local governance, subject to the Constitution and the Bill of Rights. This paved the way for the National House of Traditional Leaders, a body of kings and senior chiefs who advise the government on customary matters. Crucially, South Africa’s approach has evolved to include those Indigenous communities sidelined by colonial-era definitions: the Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Act, 2019 (TKLA) was enacted to recognize Khoisan chiefs and councils for the first time. In effect, South Africa’s model enables robust traditional governance within a republican framework: kings convene councils, but disputes over succession can be reviewed by courts, and customary authority must align with constitutional rights like gender equality.

 

Legal status note (Khoi-San, including Korana):

Under ss 211–212 of the South African Constitution, customary law and the institution of traditional leadership are recognized, and courts must apply customary law where applicable, subject to the Bill of Rights. Sections 30–31 protect cultural and language rights, while the CRL Rights Commission (s 185; Act 19 of 2002) safeguards community rights and councils. In parallel, South Africa endorses UNDRIP (2007), which affirms indigenous peoples’ rights to maintain institutions, culture and FPIC. These constitutional and international-norm protections exist irrespective of TKLA recognition. The TKLA (2019) governs statutory recognition of leadership structures (e.g., kingships/queenships, councils) and access to formal interfaces (Houses of Traditional & Khoi-San Leaders). For Khoi-San claimants—including Korana houses like the Kark Royal House—recognition outcomes are being issued progressively by the Commission on Khoi-San Matters; verify officeholders case-by-case before protocol engagements.

 

Elsewhere, legal recognition varies. Ghana’s 1992 Constitution firmly guarantees chieftaincy, insulating it from abolition by parliament. It establishes a National House of Chiefs with quasi-judicial powers to settle disputes. Uganda’s Constitution permits the restoration of “traditional or cultural leaders” but imposes strict limits: kings cannot hold political office or partisan roles. Nigeria, a federal republic, has no constitutional clause on traditional rulers at the national level, yet it hosts perhaps the most complex array of monarchs – emirs, obas, obis, and more. Each Nigerian state has its own council of traditional rulers, and state laws classify chiefs by grade. A current debate in Nigeria underscores their ambiguous status: a 2024 bill proposes creating a National Council of Traditional Rulers, but controversy erupted over its leadership structure, highlighting the difficulty of representing hundreds of diverse kingdoms in a single body.

 

Broadly, African states have learned that outright suppression of traditional leadership often backfires. Instead, the trend is towards managed accommodation: formal recognition, advisory roles, and legal boundaries to prevent abuses. The legal landscape is a patchwork, but one guided by a common principle: to harness the moral legitimacy of kings and chiefs for nation-building, while subjecting them to the “rules of the game” in a democracy.

 

Orders & Honours: Between State and Dynasty

In a gilded throne room in Rabat, Morocco’s king awards the Wissam al-Arch (Order of the Throne) – a state honour steeped in royal tradition. Across the continent in a village durbar, the Asantehene (Ashanti king) confers the title of Nkosuohene (development chief) on a foreign philanthropist. These scenes illustrate Africa’s layered system of honours: some emanate from states, others from dynastic heritage, and others purely from community custom.

 

  • State Orders are established by modern governments, conferred by presidents or reigning sovereigns. Examples include Morocco’s Order of the Throne, Lesotho’s Order of Moshoeshoe, and South Africa’s Order of Mapungubwe. These are recognized under standard diplomatic protocol.

 

  • Dynastic Orders emanate from a royal house outside of direct state control. The prime example is Ethiopia’s imperial orders. Although the monarchy was abolished in 1975, the Solomonic dynasty continues to operate in exile via the Crown Council, which awards historic chivalric orders like the Order of Solomon. These are considered legitimate dynastic orders, though not recognized by the current Ethiopian state.

 

  • Community Honours & Chieftaincy Titles are conferred by a cultural monarch as part of customary practice. An honorary chieftaincy title in Nigeria or Ghana is an esteemed local distinction that builds cross-cultural bridges but does not confer legal privilege.

 

European courts should recognize which is which: receiving an Order of the Star of Ghana is akin to receiving an order from any state; receiving the Order of the Queen of Sheba from Ethiopia’s Crown Council is a dynastic honour to be acknowledged politely but kept separate from official lists. (See Sidebar: How Honours Work for a quick guide.)

 

Governance on the Ground: What Kings and Chiefs Do

Beyond pageantry, Africa’s traditional leaders play tangible roles in daily governance and development – particularly in rural areas where the state’s  presence can be limited.

 

Land management is a paramount function. In countries like Ghana and much of Nigeria, the majority of land is customary land held in trust by chiefs. They allocate farmland, adjudicate boundary disputes, and give consent for land sales and leases.

 

Dispute resolution is another core domain. Traditional leaders typically preside over local customary courts (kgotla in Botswana, for example) that handle minor civil and criminal matters using mediation and principles of reconciliation. These courts are often more accessible and trusted than formal state courts.

 

Traditional leaders are also development brokers. They mobilize communities for public works, lobby government for resources, and partner with NGOs. Exemplary cases abound:

 

  • The Royal Bafokeng Nation in South Africa, under King (Kgosi) Leruo Molotlegi, leveraged mining royalties to build a $4 billion sovereign portfolio, investing in schools, a sports stadium, and modern infrastructure for its 150,000 people.

 

  • In KwaZulu-Natal, the late Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini famously revived male circumcision as an HIV prevention measure, a cultural approach credited with helping reduce infections.

 

  • Queen Mothers in Ghana, female traditional leaders, have been at the forefront of social development, running microcredit schemes, combating child labor, and promoting girls’ education.

 

  • The Korana Royal House in South Africa provides a powerful example of indigenous revival. Under the leadership of King Cyril of the Korana Kark, whose authority is rooted in a traceable ancestry to the original Korana kings, this ancient Khoisan community is actively restoring its monarchy and cultural heritage after centuries of suppression. The recognition of his kingship by his people, who are spread across South Africa, is a profound exercise of the rights enshrined in the Constitution and UNDRIP.

 

In sum, kings and chiefs act as grassroots governors: they allocate land, settle disputes, preserve culture, and often serve as a crucial link between their people and the state’s development programs.

 

History & Memory: Empires Past and Present

Africa’s royal institutions are living repositories of collective memory, harking back to precolonial civilizations and mediating the trauma of colonialism.

 

Consider Ethiopia’s Solomonic Dynasty – once among the world’s oldest continuous monarchies. Emperor Haile Selassie’s overthrow in 1974 ended the empire, but the imperial heritage endures. The Ethiopian Royal Family in exile, led by Crown Prince Zera Yacob Amha Selassie, engages in charity and cultural events, keeping the memory alive.

 

In West Africa, the legacy of the Mali Empire of Mansa Musa (14th c.) manifests in lineage and lore. Griots (traditional bards) continue to recount the Epic of Sundiata – the empire’s founding saga – ensuring that new generations hear of the greatness of their forebears.

 

Colonial disruptions nearly severed some of these lines. The British, French, and other colonial regimes often practiced indirect rule – governing through local kings but molding their powers to serve colonial interests, sometimes deposing recalcitrant kings like Ashanti King Prempeh I. Yet many dynasties proved resilient. The decades after independence saw mixed fortunes, with some kingdoms abolished and later restored, as in Uganda. The joy in Buganda when the young Kabaka Ronald Mutebi II was crowned in 1993, after 26 years of the throne lying empty, was palpable. These restorations underscore the deep-rooted yearning of communities to have their royal institutions acknowledged.

 

Courtly Codes: Protocol and Etiquette in African Palaces

Visiting an African royal court requires cultural savvy. While each kingdom has its own protocols, some common themes span the continent.

Forms of address are paramount. Using indigenous titles is respectful: call a Yoruba king “Kabiyesi,” a Buganda king “Ssabasajja Kabaka,” or a Zulu king “Bayede.” A slight bow or curtsey is common.

 

Attire should be modest. A suit or formal dress is safe. Gift-giving is an entrenched part of court protocol. Something from your country or royal house, presented with both hands, is highly recommended.

Be aware of taboos: never step on or over sacred objects, and do not casually touch the monarch. Photography may be restricted.

 

Etiquette around women in the royal court is another key area: many royal families have prominent roles for queen mothers. If a Queen Mother (like Eswatini’s Ndlovukati or a Ghanaian Ohemaa) is present, she is accorded equal if not higher courtesy than the king.

 

Overall, approach every interaction with a mix of dignity and deference. As one seasoned diplomat advises, “go as a learner into the royal kraal; they will guide you, and you will earn respect by respecting them.” (See Sidebar: What to Say and How to Sit for a quick protocol cheat-sheet.)

 

Ethics & Optics: Navigating Modern Sensibilities

Engaging with Africa’s traditional leaders in the 21st century carries ethical responsibilities. Interactions should empower communities, not just glorify individuals, and avoid any whiff of neocolonial patronage.

 

Anti-corruption and good governance are key. When funding projects involving traditional authorities, transparency is essential. Insist on community-led committees to manage funds and welcome civil society observers.

 

Avoiding neo-colonialism in appearance is crucial. Interactions must be based on partnership and mutual respect. Projects should ideally be co-created with the traditional leadership and their community, adhering to the principle of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC).

 

Finally, always center the welfare of the people in any joint initiative. A common critique in Africa is that some chiefs live in luxury while their people suffer. Don’t reinforce that image. If you sponsor a restoration of a palace, also consider funding a public community hall or school. Show that the partnership is not just between elites but between peoples.

 

Regional Focus: Southern Africa’s Blended Governance

Southern Africa offers some of the most integrative examples of traditional leadership coexisting with modern republics.

 

  • South Africa: As detailed, its comprehensive constitutional framework recognizes eleven kingships and hundreds of chiefdoms, with formal advisory roles in National and Provincial Houses of Traditional Leaders. The government financially supports these institutions, and the TKLA aims to modernize governance by requiring elected and female representation on traditional councils. A poignant case is that of the Korana people, one of South Africa’s most ancient communities. After generations of colonial and apartheid suppression, their monarchy is being restored under King Cyril of the Korana Kark, whose leadership is rooted in a traceable lineage to the original Korana kings recognized by the community. He and other Khoisan chiefs now sit alongside Zulu and Sotho kings in the National House, signaling a broader inclusivity in South Africa’s traditional leadership landscape.

 

  • Botswana: Traditional leadership (Bogosi) is woven into governance. The Ntlo ya Dikgosi (House of Chiefs) is an advisory upper house to Parliament. Chiefs (dikgosi) still administer customary courts and are credited with helping maintain social cohesion.

 

  • Namibia: Dozens of traditional authorities are officially designated under the Traditional Authorities Act. A Council of Traditional Leaders advises the president, and leaders have been critical in post-independence reconciliation and restorative justice efforts, such as seeking repatriation of remains from Germany after the colonial-era genocide.

 

  • Zimbabwe: Traditional leaders are constitutionally recognized, and the Council of Chiefs elects members to serve as senators in Parliament. The constitution mandates their political neutrality, though their influence is still courted at election time.

 

Regional Focus: West & East Africa’s Plural Societies

 

  • Nigeria: With over 250 ethnic groups, Nigeria presents a case of extreme diversity. Powerful Emirs in the north and myriad Obas, Obis, and Amanyanabos in the south wield immense local allegiance. Their roles vary by state law. They play crucial roles in conflict mediation and partner with government on development, such as the Emir of Kano’s vital support for polio eradication campaigns.

 

  • Ghana: The chieftaincy is constitutionally entrenched, with the National House of Chiefs serving as the final arbiter of disputes. The Asantehene remains highly influential, and his Otumfuo Education Fund has provided thousands of scholarships. Queen mothers are particularly strong in Ghana, co-ruling stools and leading social development initiatives.

 

  • Uganda: The restored kingdoms (Buganda being the largest) operate as cultural institutions. The Kabaka of Buganda has a cabinet, a parliament-like council (Lukiiko), and runs development trusts, a community university, and a television station, all complementing state services.

 

The Way Forward: A Five-Point Playbook for Ethical Engagement

For European royal houses, nobles, and heritage institutions aiming to build meaningful relationships with African traditional leaders, here is a five-point strategy:

 

  1. Shared Heritage & Archives: Leverage historical ties to heal and educate. Champion the digitization and return of royal archives and artifacts. Partner on exchange exhibits that allow African kingdoms to tell their own stories.

 

  1. Education & Cultural Exchanges: Invest in the next generation. Fund scholarships for youth from royal communities to study heritage conservation or public administration. Encourage twinning of schools and mentorship programs.

 

  1. Orders Alignment & Honours Protocol: Bridge honour systems respectfully. Create a forum for chivalric experts from European and African royal orders to meet and establish mutual etiquette. Align charitable orders to co-award recognitions for humanitarian work.

 

  1. Youth Engagement & Language Preservation: Support the pillars of culture. Co-sponsor youth cultural festivals and leadership bootcamps. Back initiatives to preserve endangered languages, such as those of the Khoi-San communities.

 

  1. Collaborative Conservation & Development: Join forces on pressing issues. Form royal conservancy partnerships where European nobles link with traditional authorities who oversee lands rich in biodiversity. Ensure community consent and that outcomes credit local leadership.

 

By implementing this playbook, a constant principle is dignified partnership. Always engage traditional leaders as equals in wisdom. When communities see European nobility treating their customs with genuine respect, it softens historical mistrust and opens hearts to collaboration. In a world that sometimes feels adrift, these bonds anchored in deep heritage could prove immensely stabilizing and enriching for all involved.

 

Sidebars & Comparative Table

Sidebar: How Honours Work – State, Dynastic, or Community?

 

  • State Orders: Official national awards conferred by a head of state (e.g., South Africa’s Order of Mapungubwe). Recognized internationally.

 

  • Dynastic Orders: Originate from royal families, often those no longer reigning (e.g., Ethiopia’s Order of Solomon). Considered legitimate private honours.

 

  • Community Honours & Chieftaincy Titles: Titles given by a tribe or kingdom as part of custom (e.g., an honorary Nkosuohene title in Ghana). Carries social weight locally.

 

Sidebar: What to Say and How to Sit – A Quick Protocol Card

 

  • Greetings: Use formal address (“Your Majesty” or local titles like Kgosi, Kabaka, Oba). Accompany with a slight bow or curtsey.

 

  • Body Language: Let the royal initiate handshakes. Don’t turn your back when departing. Avoid crossing legs towards the royal.

 

  • Dress Code: Dress modestly and formally. Remove hats and sunglasses.

 

  • Speaking: Use honorifics. Avoid first-name familiarity. Do not directly question or debate the royal in public.

 

  • Gifts: Bring a gift and present it with both hands.

 

Comparative Table of Monarchies & Traditional Leadership

Country

Status of Monarchy/Traditional Leadership

Fount of Honour / Major Orders

Key Legal Instrument

Morocco

Sovereign Monarchy (Executive)

King; Order of the Throne (State)

2011 Constitution

Lesotho

Constitutional Monarchy (Ceremonial)

King; Order of Moshoeshoe (State)

1993 Constitution

Eswatini

Absolute Monarchy (Executive)

King; Order of Sobhuza II (State)

2005 Constitution

South Africa

Republic with Recognized Kingships

President; National Orders (State)

Constitution (1996), Ch. 12; TKLA (2019)

Botswana

Republic; Chiefs in Ntlo ya Dikgosi

President; Presidential Order (State)

Constitution (1966), Secs. 77–79

Namibia

Republic; ~51 Traditional Authorities

President; Order of the Welwitschia (State)

Traditional Authorities Act (2000)

Zimbabwe

Republic; 18 Chiefs in Senate

President; Order of Great Zimbabwe (State)

Constitution (2013), Ch. 15

Nigeria

Republic; Hundreds of Monarchs

President; GCFR, OON (National Honours)

Varies by state-level laws

Ghana

Republic; Chieftaincy Protected

President; Order of the Star of Ghana (State)

Constitution (1992), Ch. 22

Uganda

Republic; Kings as Cultural Leaders

President; Order of the Pearl of Africa (State)

Constitution (1995), Art. 246

Ethiopia

Republic (Monarchy Abolished 1974)

Crown Council; Order of Solomon (Dynastic)

N/A (Historic: 1955 Imperial Constitution)

 

 

Endnotes

(A comprehensive list of formal citations based on the numbered references in the source text would be compiled here for the final publication.)

bottom of page